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Objective: To explore the pathogen composition and distribution characteristics of pathogens in respiratory samples from patients with fever of unknown origin. Methods: A total of 96 respiratory samples of patients with unknown cause fever with respiratory symptoms were collected from four hospitals above grade II in Shijiazhuang area (Hebei Provincial Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Luancheng District People's Hospital, Luquan District People's Hospital, Shenze County Hospital) from January to April 2020, and multiplex-fluorescent polymerase chain reaction(PCR)was used to detect influenza A virus, influenza B virus, enterovirus, parainfluenza virus I/II/III/IV, respiratory adenovirus, human metapneumovirus, respiratory syncytial virus, human rhinovirus, human bocavirus, COVID-19, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Legionella pneumophila, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Group A streptococcus, Haemophilus influenzae, Staphylococcus aureus nucleic acid detection, the results were analyzed for chi-square. Results: A total of 8 pathogens were detected in the upper respiratory tract samples of 96 fever patients, including 1 kind of virus, 6 kinds of bacterias, and Mycoplasma pneumoniae. There were 12 viruses including influenza virus and parainfluenza virus, Legionella pneumophila and Chlamydia pneumoniae were not detected. The pathogen detection rates in descending order were Streptococcus pneumoniae (58/96, 60.42%), Haemophilus influenzae(38/96, 39.58%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (14/96, 14.58%), Staphylococcus aureus (10/96, 10.42%), Mycoplasma pneumoniae (8/96, 8.33%), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (6/96, 6.25%), Group A streptococcus (4/96, 4.17%) and human rhinovirus (2/96, 2.08%). The proportions of single-pathogen infection and multi-pathogen mixed infection in fever clinic patients were similar, 41.67% (40/96) and 45.83% (44/96), respectively, and 12.50% (12/96)of the cases had no pathogens detected. The infection rate of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in female patients with fever (21.43%) was higher than that in male patients with fever (2.94%) (P < 0.05). There was no statistical difference between the distribution of of other pathogens and gender and age(P > 0.05). Conclusions: The upper respiratory tract pathogens were mainly bacterial infections, and occasional human rhinovirus and Mycoplasma pneumonia infections. In clinical diagnosis and treatment, comprehensive consideration should be given to the pathogen detection.
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Many zoonotic diseases are found in wild animals and present a serious risk to human health, in particularly the virus carried by birds flying freely around the world is hard to control. There are three main bird migration routes which cover the most areas of China. It is important to investigate and fully understand the types of avian transmitted diseases in key areas on the bird migration routines and its impacts on both birds and human health. However, no literature is available in how about the risk of virus carried by migrating birds, and how to predict and reduce this risk of virus spreading to human being so far. In this paper, we first reviewed the main pathogen types carried by birds, including coronaviruses, influenza viruses, parasites, Newcastle disease virus (NDV), etc., and then discussed the spread risk of avian viruses to human being and animals in key areas of biosafety prevention. We also analyzed and discussed the risk of cross-spread of diseases among different bird species in nature reserves located on bird migration routes which provide sufficient food sources for migratory birds and attract numerous birds. Diseases transmitted by wild birds pose a serious threat to poultry farms, where high density of poultry may become avian influenza virus (AIV) reservoirs, cause a risk of avian influenza outbreaks. Airports are mostly built in suburban areas or remote areas with good ecological environment. There are important transit places for bird migration and densely populated areas, which have serious risk of disease transmission. Finally, this paper puts forward the following prevention suggestions from three aspects. First, establish and improve the monitoring and prediction mechanism of migratory birds, and use laser technology to prevent contact between wild birds and poultry. Second, examine and identify virus types carried by birds in their habitats and carry out vaccination. Third, protect the ecological environment of bird habitat, and keep wild birds in their natural habitat, so as to reduce the contact between wild birds and human and poultry, and thus reduce the risk of virus transmission.
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OBJECTIVE: To investigate the expressions of peripheral blood microRNA-21(miR-21) and transforming growth factor-beta(TNF-beta)/Smad signaling transduction pathway in patients with bronchial asthma complicated with respiratory virus infection. METHODS: Totally 109 patients with asthma complicated with respiratory virus infection(study group) and 104 patients without virus infection(control group) in the Third People's Hospital of Gansu Province between Feb.2019 and Feb.2021 were selected for the cross-sectional study. The basic data of the two groups were collected, and parameters including vital signs, lung function, peripheral blood miR-21 and TGF-beta/Smad signaling pathway proteins were measured. According to the guidelines, the patients of the two groups were divided into acute exacerbation phase and stable phase. The examination results of each group were compared and the levels of peripheral blood miR-21 and TGF-beta/Smad signaling pathway proteins expression of patients with asthma complicated with respiratory virus infection were analyzed. RESULTS: In study group, the proportion of respiratory virus infection among 109 patients was 33.94% for influenza virus, 23.85% for human rhinovirus, 19.27% for respiratory syncytial virus, 10.09% for parainfluenza virus, 6.42% for adenovirus, 4.59% for human coronavirus and 1.83% for human metapneumovirus respectively. The proportion of patients with acute exacerbation phase in the study group was higher than that in the control group, and the levels of peripheral blood miR-21, TGF-beta1, Smad7, pSmad2 and pSmad3 were higher than those in control group(P<0.05). The levels of miR-21, TGF-beta1, Smad2, Smad3, Smad7, pSmad2 and pSmad3 in peripheral blood of patients with acute exacerbation phase of asthma were higher than those of patients with stable phase of asthma(P<0.05). There were no statistical differences in peripheral blood miR-21, TGF-beta1, Smad2, Smad3, Smad7, pSmad2 and pSmad3 levels in asthma patients with different virus infections. CONCLUSION: Early respiratory virus infections might lead to increased expression of peripheral blood miR-21 and increased activation of TGF-beta/Smad signaling pathway in patients with asthma, which played an important role in acute attack of asthma.
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Objective: To evaluate the influence of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) prevention and control measures on the transmission and epidemic of influenza in Chongqing, so as to provide references for formulating targeted influenza prevention and control strategies. Methods: The influenza surveillance data, during the year 2018 to 2020, were collected through the "China Influenza Surveillance Information System", and the seasonal characteristics of influenza epidemic were analyzed. The percentage of influenza like cases (ILI%) and influenza virus positive rate between 2020 and 2018-2019 were compared, so as to evaluate the impact of COVID-19 prevention and control measures on influenza epidemic characteristics. Results: The annual proportions of ILI cases in Chongqing were respectively 3.53%, 2.23% and 1.2% from 2018 to 2020, while the positive rates of influenza virus were respectively 13.97%, 23.81% and 2.65%. The distribution trend of ILI% from 2018 to 2019 fluctuated were similar, but it continued to drop and remain at a low level since February 2020. The positive rate of influenza virus showed an epidemic peak from December to March in 2018-2019, also peaked from November 2019 to January 2020, but decreased to 0 in March. ILI% was positively correlated with the positive rate of influenza virus (r=0.404 8, P < 0.05). In 2020, compared with the same period of 2018-2019, the growth rate of ILI% was -66.09% and -46.32%, respectively. The positive rate of influenza virus in 2020 decreased by 81.03% and 88.87% compared with the same period of 2018-2019, respectively. The growth rates of influenza virus positive rate in January 2020 were decreased with a small rate of about 39.87%, and with a significantly decline of more than 93.65% from February. No influenza epidemic was found after March. Conclusions: Since COVID-19 prevention and control measures were implemented in January 2020 in Chongqing, the ILI% and the positive rate of influenza virus in sentinel hospitals decreased significantly. In the season of high incidence of respiratory infectious diseases, personal protection and other measures can effectively reduce influenza virus infection.
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Objective: To describe the clinical features, causal agent and transmission mode of a fever outbreak in a school in Shanghai. Methods: Field epidemiological approaches including case definition development, searching for contacts, distribution of diseases description, environmental sampling and laboratory testing. Results: A total of 16 influenza-like cases were included, all concentrated in the one class of grade two, including 15 students and 1 teacher. Among student cases, the incidence rate was 36.59%(15/41), the average age was 7.4 years, the incidence rate was 36.84%(7/19) for boys, 36.36%(8/22) for girls. The clinical course was 5-15 days, with the median of 9 days, and 18.75%(3/16) of the cases stayed studying while sick. The nasopharyngeal swab specimens in 16 cases all tested positive for influenza B, of which 11 tested positive for mycoplasma pneumoniae and 1 case also tested positive for coronavirus OC43. Body temperature, number of mononuclear cells, and treatment time of patients infected with Influenza B and mycoplasma pneumoniae were higher than those of patients infected with influenza B alone(P < 0.05). The outbreak lasted for 12 days, all sick students were treated and discharged from hospital, with no severe cases or death, and the outbreak was effectively controlled. Conclusion: This campus cluster outbreak caused by influenza B and mycoplasma pneumoniae. Patients with influenza B with mycoplasma pneumoniae have severe symptoms and a long course of illness, suggesting the importance of early management of the epidemic.
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The health of domesticated animals and wild animals is frequently threatened by animal illnesses. It typically receives less attention and information than illnesses that also impact humans, including the Corona virus. To be able to respond quickly, it is crucial to understand the epidemic's progression and transmission vectors. Numerous new diseases have been reported in the news over the past 20 years, the majority of which having an animal source (zoonoses). Examples from recent times include the West Nile virus, SARS, avian influenza, and monkeypox. Some developing diseases impact both humans and animals, whereas others only affect either animals or humans. All of these emerging or reemerging illnesses, however, have societal repercussions that are frequently connected to regional and global economy. Understanding the effects of newly emerging animal diseases is crucial, as is promoting closer veterinarian and medical professional collaboration, particularly in rural regions. The index cases for newly developing diseases may be illnesses that affect agricultural laborers.
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Background: Lassa fever is an acute viral haemorrhagic disease caused by the Lassa virus (LASV). It is endemic in West Africa and infects about 300,000 people each year, leading to approximately 5000 deaths annually. The development of the LASV vaccine has been listed as a priority by the World Health Organization since 2018. Considering the accelerated development and availability of vaccines against COVID-19, we set out to assess the prospects of LASV vaccines and the progress made so far. Materials and Methods: We reviewed the progress made on twenty-six vaccine candidates listed by Salami et al. (2019) and searched for new vaccine candidates through Google Scholar, PubMed, and DOAJ from June to July 2021. We searched the articles published in English using keywords that included "vaccine" AND "Lassa fever" OR "Lassa virus" in the title/. Results: Thirty-four candidate vaccines were identified - 26 already listed in the review by Salami et al. and an additional 8, which were developed over the last seven years. 30 vaccines are still in the pre-clinical stage while 4 of them are currently undergoing clinical trials. The most promising candidates in 2019 were vesicular stomatitis virus-vectored vaccine and live-attenuated MV/LASV vaccine;both had progressed to clinical trials. Conclusions: Despite the focus on COVID-19 vaccines since 2020, LASV vaccine is under development and continues to make impressive progress, hence more emphasis should be put into exploring further clinical studies related to the most promising types of vaccines identified.
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This special issue contains 23 articles that discuss various aspects of antiviral research, focusing on the contributions and legacy of Dr. Mike Bray, the retiring Editor-in-Chief of Antiviral Research. The articles cover a range of topics, including the underappreciated mouse model for Ebola virus disease, the history and impact of the mouse-adapted Ebola virus model, and the characterisation of CD-1 mice infected with different strains of Ebola virus. Other articles delve into transplacental vertical transmission of flaviviruses, the development of reverse genetic systems for SARS-CoV-2, and the mechanisms of action and drug resistance of nucleotide analogues against the virus. The special issue also explores therapeutics for flaviviral infections, alternative splicing in RNA virus infections, and targeted protein degradation as an antiviral approach.
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Bovine rhinitis virus (BRV) is an important pathogen responsible for the bovine respiratory disease complex (BRDC) and can be divided into two genotypes (BRAV and BRBV). To establish a duplex quantitative real-time RT-PCR assay for simultaneous detection of BRAV and BRBV, specific primers and TaqMan probes targeting the 5'NTR of BRAV and 3'NTR of BRBV were designed. A duplex quantitative real- time RT- PCR assay for simultaneous detecting BRAV and BRBV was preliminarily established by optimizing reaction conditions for each step. The assay specifically detects BRAV and BRBV, and no crossreaction with other common bovine respiratory pathogens, including IDV, BCoV, BVDV-1, BRSV, BPIV-3, BAdV-3, mycoplasma bovis, Pasteurella multocida, Mannheimia haemolytica, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella, was observed. In addition, the sensitivity test showed that the detection limits of this assay were 3.2x101 copies/L for both BRAV and BRBV plasmid standards. Besides, the repeatability test showed that the variation coefficients of this assay were less than 0.05 from both lot-to-lot and intra-lot. These results showed that the assay has high specificity, extreme sensitivity, and good repeatability. Moreover, a total of 43 nasal swabs of BRDC cattle were tested by our assay and four other quantitative real-time RT-PCR assays, including 3 BRAV assays and 4 BRBV assays. The results showed that the detection rates of our assay were 32.56%(14/43) for BRAV and 30.23%(13/43) for BRBV, and the detection rates of other quantitative real-time RT-PCR assays were 0(0/43), 2.33%(1/43), 23.26%(10/43) for BRAV and 27.91% (12/43), 27.91%(12/43), 27.91%(12/43), 27.91%(12/43) for BRBV, indicating that our assay has a more substantial detection capability than other assays. This study firstly established a duplex quantitative real-time RT-PCR assay for simultaneous detection of BRAV and BRBV, and the assay exhibited high specificity, sensitivity, and stability. Moreover, the study firstly confirmed the existence of BRAV in China, contributing to the prevention and control of BRDC.
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Relevance: Despite the undoubted successes achieved in the fight against infectious diseases, the importance of pathogens in human pathology not only does not decrease, but also shows a tendency to increase. Thousands of people die from complications every year. This is due to the fact that viruses, primarily influenza viruses and coronaviruses, have the ability to change their structure and the mutated virus is able to infect a person again. So, a person who has had the flu has a good immune barrier, but nevertheless a new modified virus is able to easily penetrate it, since the body has not yet developed immunity against this type of virus. To date, the most effective measure of protection against viral infections is vaccination. Aim: Analysis of literature data on the role of vaccination in the system of anti-epidemic and preventive measures in the fight against viral infections, including COVID-19. Search strategy: Scientific publications were searched in the following databases: PubMed, Medline, e-Library, using the Google Scholar scientific search engine. The search depth is 3 years. Criteria for inclusion: publications in Russian and English by thematic requests: vaccination, COVID-19, pandemic;publications included in the PubMed, Medline, e-Library databases;publications for the last 3 years. Criteria for excluding: articles with paid access;s. A total of 168 sources were found. 62 articles passed the selection algorithm, accepted for analysis. Results: Analysis of the literature data has shown that today vaccination is an effective and beneficial measure against various infections worldwide. Vaccines save millions of lives every year. The development of safe and effective vaccines against COVID-19 is a huge step forward towards ending the pandemic and returning to a normal lifestyle. Conclusions: Based on the literature review, it became known that with the help of vaccines, humanity managed to get rid of a number of dangerous infections, and today, in the confrontation with the coronavirus pandemic, great hope is placed on them. A lot of research teams in different countries have joined in the search for a reliable vaccine.
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Objective: To explore the distribution and correlation of pathogens in the elderly patients with AECOPD, so as to guide the rational use of antibiotics and hormones in clinic. Methods: A total of 111 patients with acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (AECOPD) admitted to Nanjing First Hospital from January 2019 to January 2020 were retrospectively analyzed. The basic data such as eosinophil, neutrophil and lymphocyte count, the levels of C-reactive protein(CRP) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR)in blood routine examination were collected. Further, the pathogens were qualified by sputum fluorescence quantitative polymerase chain reaction, and the pathogens distribution was analyzed. Results: The level of ESR and the ratio of cardiovascular diseases showed significant differences between the pathogen-positive group and pathogen-negative group. In this study, the top five pathogens in AECOPD patients were EB virus (21.6%), Haemophilus influenzae (19.8%), Streptococcus pneumoniae (17.1%), herpes simplex virus(14.4%), influenza A virus(14.4%). The detection rate of influenza A virus was correlated with influenza B virus and Aspergillus (P < 0.05);The detection rate of respiratory syncytial virus was correlated with Candida, Moraxella catarrholis, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae (P < 0.05);The detection rate of Escherichia coli was correlated with rhinovirus, adenovirus, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Acinetobacter baumannii (P < 0.05);The detection rate of Candida was correlated with that of Moraxella catarrholis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa(P<0.05);The detection rate of human coronavirus was correlated with Haemophilus influenzae, herpes simplex virus and Streptococcus pneumoniae(P < 0.05). Conclusions: AECOPD are mostly induced by different pathogens, especially mixed infection of bacteria and virus. It is helpful to guide the rational use of antibiotics by analyzing the etiological characteristics in the elderly patients with AECOPD.
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Objective: Provide a digital microfluidic RT-qPCR chip for rapid detection of several upper respiratory diseases. Methods: Several specific primer-probe sets were designed according to the conserved sequences of 2019 novel corona virus(2019-n COV), influenza A virus(Flu A), influenza B virus(Flu B), severe acute respiratory syndrome corona virus(SARS-Co V), Middle East respiratory syndrome corona virus(MERS-Co V), and then packaged into a digital microfluidic chip which allowed simultaneous detection of five upper respiratory tract pathogens with the help of reverse transcription quantitative PCR(RT-q PCR)technology. In the meanwhile, the detection limit, specificity and sensitivity of this digital microfluidic chip were evaluated base on the clinical specimens, plasmids and unrelated pathogens. Results: The established digital microfluidic RT-q PCR chip for 2019-n COV, Flu A, Flu B,SARS-Co V,MERS-Co V had a detection limit of 12 copies/reaction, while the detection limit of the RT-q PCR method without digital microfluidics was 15 copy/reaction;the detection limit of the two methods was basically the same. For nucleic acid samples extracted from clinical samples, the detection results of digital microfluidic RT-q PCR chips were all negative without non-specific amplification. At the same time, the RT-qPCR method and the digital microfluidic RT-qPCR chip method were used to carry out clinical comparative tests of 5 items in 20 clinical samples, total 100 tests. The results showed that the sensitivity of the digital microfluidic RT-q PCR chip reached 94%, the specificity was 100%. SPSS was used to analyze the consistency of the two methods, and the results showed that the two methods had a high degree of consistency(Kappa=0.962, P<0.05). Conclusion: Based on digital microfluidic RT-q PCR chip technology,a multi-target rapid detection method of upper respiratory tract susceptible virus was established, which could provide a new detection method for early clinical identification of respiratory pathogens.
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Objective: To understand the epidemiological changes of children infected with 8 respiratory viral pathogens under the protection strategy of the new coronavirus epidemic in Guangzhou. Methods: A total of 13 606 children diagnosed with upper respiratory tract infection from January 2019 to December 2020 were retrospectively analyzed. Children were divided into four groups: infant group, toddler group, preschool group and school age group. Indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) was used to detect eight major respiratory virus pathogens, including: adenovirus (ADV), respiratory syncytial virus(RSV), influenza A virus (IV-A), influenza B virus (IV-B), parainfluenza virus (PIV), Chlamydia pneumonia(CP), Legionella pneumophila (LP) and Mycoplasma pneumonia (MP). Results: Sinc ethe outbreak of COVID-19, the positive rates of eight respiratory pathogens had decreased, especially influenza A and B. The positive rate of IV-A showed significant decrease from 30.126% to 12.930%, and the positive rate of IV-B from 25.597% to 19.268%, the defferences were statistically significant (X2=52.849, 369.778, all P < 0.05). Among different age groups, the positive rates of IV-A and ADV infection in each group decreased significantly, especially in infant group and toddler group. The positive rate of IV-A showed significant decrease from 4.588% to 1.979%, and the positive rate of ADV from 43.007% to 21.240%, the defferences were statistically significant(X2=18.910, 197.714, all P < 0.05). Before and after the outbreak of COVID-19, the differences in ADV, IV-A, IV-B, MP and PIV between the male and female groups were statistically significant (P < 0.05). Conclusion: Novel coronavirus protective measures were effective in preventing some common respiratory diseases in children.
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ObjectiveTo analyze the influenza surveillance data in Ezhou City, Hubei Province from 2016 to 2021, determine the epidemiological characteristics and etiological trend of influenza like illness (ILI), and to provide scientific evidence for influenza prevention and control. MethodsThe ILI surveillance data were reported by Ezhou influenza sentinel hospitals and etiological examination results were collected by network laboratory. Influenza surveillance data from 2016 to 2021 were analyzed. ResultsFrom 2016 to 2021, the percentage of ILI visits (ILI%) in Ezhou city was 2.81% and increased over years. Majority (55.55%) of ILI cases were 0-4 years. A total of 7 716 ILI samples were examined from 2016 to 2021, of which 1 467 tested positive with a positive rate of 19.01%. Influenza A H1N1 was mainly concentrated in January-April, A H3N2 mainly in August-December, B Victoria mainly in April-July and December-March, and B Yamagata mainly in December-February. Influenza network laboratory isolated influenza virus from the 1 467 positive samples by using MDCK cells and SPF chicken embryos. The overall isolation rate was 32.78%, which was 26.93% by MDCK cells and 5.86% by SPF chicken embryos. From 2016 to 2021, a total of 13 ILI outbreaks were reported in Ezhou City. Temporally, the outbreaks mainly occurred in winter and spring. Spatially, they were mainly in primary schools, middle schools and kindergartens. ConclusionThe winter and spring are the key time period of influenza prevention and control in Ezhou City, as they are susceptible to influenza outbreaks. Children aged 0-14 are the key population of prevention and control. Diverse subtypes of influenza virus alternate by years, which warrants continually strengthening monitoring. Additionally, certain countermeasures against COVID-19 may be recommended in the prevention and control of influenza.
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This paper describes the epidemiology, prevalence, transmission, prevention and control of some infectious diseases in companion animals, livestock, wild animals and humans in Ontario, Canada, in 2022, including SARS-CoV-2;Echinococcus multilocularis, Leishmania spp. and SARS-CoV-2;antimicrobial stewardship resources;2 cases of rabid dogs imported from Iran (July 2021 and January 2022);prevalence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL)-producing Enterobacteriacea, Dirofilaria immitis, Brucella canis, canine parainfluenza and adeno- and herpes viruses in dogs recently imported from Asia;Paragonimus kellicotti lung flukes and Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus in dogs;African swine fever in pet pigs, backyard pigs and wild pigs and blastomycosis in dogs and humans.
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In January 2023, a total of 64 infectious diseases were reported globally, affecting 235 countries and regions. Except for influenza, the top five infectious diseases affecting greatest number of countries and regions were COVID-19 (235), monkeypox (110), dengue fever (31), measles (27) and cholera (15). The top five infectious diseases with highest case fatality rates were Nipah virus disease (62.5%), Ebola virus disease (47.0%), Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever (37.5%), Lassa fever (15.1%) and West Nile fever (7.6%). The top five infectious diseases with greatest number of deaths were COVID-19, malaria, cholera, measles and dengue fever. The prevalent infectious diseases in Asia were COVID-19, cholera and dengue fever, the prevalent infectious diseases in Africa were COVID-19, cholera, yellow fever, Lassa fever, malaria and monkeypox, the prevalent infectious diseases in America were COVID-19, cholera, monkeypox, dengue fever and chikungunya fever, the prevalent infectious disease in Europe were COVID-19, monkeypox and invasive group A streptococcus infection.
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Objective: To assess the risk of public health emergencies occurring in China (except Hong Kong, Macao Special Administrative Regions and Taiwan Province, the same below) or possibly imported from outside China in February 2023. Methods: Based on various data and departmental notification information on domestic and foreign public health emergencies reports and surveillance of key infectious diseases, the expert consultation method was used and experts from provincial (autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government) centers for disease prevention and control were invited to participate in the assessment by video conference. Results: The number of public health emergencies to be reported in February 2023 is expected to increase compared to former month. In February 2023, affected by immune escape and reinfection of Omicron variants XBB, CH and other possible emerging subtypes, it is expected that the COVID-19 may become endemic in more areas of the world. In China, because of the increased flow of people after the Spring Festival and the opening of schools, the possibility of the spread of the virus will increase. The influenza viruses activity level may increase in February, and influenza A (H1N1) is more likely to be the main influenza virus. Conclusion: Special attention is given to COVID-19, and general attention is given to seasonal influenza.
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This article discusses the worldwide routine vaccination coverage in 2021, as part of the Immunisation Agenda 2030, a global immunisation strategy to reduce morbidity and mortality from vaccine-preventable diseases. The report presents global, regional, and national estimates and trends in vaccination coverage through 2021, based on reviews of country-specific data, including administrative and survey-based coverage. Global estimates show that coverage with 3 doses of diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis-containing vaccine (DTPcv3) and the first dose of measles-containing vaccine (MCV1) decreased to their lowest levels since 2008. In 2021, 25.0 million infants were not vaccinated with DTPcv3, 2.1 million more than in 2020, and 5.9 million more than in 2019. The number of zero-dose children was 37% higher than in 2019, with 18.2 million infants not receiving any DTPcv dose by the age of 12 months. The report highlights that the full recovery from disruptions to immunisation programmes due to the COVID-19 pandemic will require context-specific strategies to find missed children, prioritise essential health services, and strengthen immunisation programmes to prevent outbreaks.
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Against a pandemic of emerged infectious disease, COVID-19, new generation vaccines based on nucleic acids or recombinant viruses, which had not been used as vaccines in humans, have been inoculated and shown to be successful. They are, however, heat-labile and need a cold-chain including deep-freezers for storage and transportation. Vaccinia virus (VAC) vector vaccine (VACV) is a pioneer of new generation of vaccines constructed by using molecular biological technology. VACV, which has contributed to eradication of smallpox, has excellent characteristics of vaccinia virus such as a high heat-stability and long-lasting immunological effects. It is possible to distinguish the immunological responses of vaccination from those of natural infections. We started our developmental researches 35 years ago, using attenuated VAC strains established in Japan. In this article, we first describe the early researches of VACVs;development of two VACVs for Bovine leukemia virus and Rinderpest morbillivirus antigens and their protective immunity in large mammals, sheep and cows. Second, application of VACV is described;Rabies-VACV, which has already been licensed, used in the field in Europe and USA, and resulted in a prominent decrease of rabies. Then, current status of VACV research is described;non-replicating VACVs in mammalian cells have been developed as new-generation and ultimately-safe vaccines. We discuss the possibility of future application of VACV for wildlife.
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Biodiversity protects ecosystem against infectious diseases. Increased human contact with wild life have caused high impact diseases such as SARS, Novel Corona virus, Nipah Virus, Ebola fever and many more. Anthropogenic activities such as hunting, farming, human encroachments, wild life trade, introduction of domestic species, bush meat hunting, road building, mining and increased human wildlife contact rates have lead to massive decline in biodiversity and increased risk of spilling over of dangerous viruses from animals to humans primarily due to host shifts. Human preference to high meat diet is also on rise in many countries. Wet markets have significant contribution in amplifying epizootic virus transmission and increased human exposure. Species in the primate and bat orders harbor a number of zoonotic viruses. Our destruction of nature, loss of habitat and biodiversity possibly tend to promote viral emergence. Invasion of undisturbed places leads to more and more exposure and create habitat where viral transmission is easier. Interference with a natural environment/habitat can, therefore, worsen the health risks. The erosion of biodiversity may lead to proliferation of species that are most likely to transmit new diseases to humans. Preserving habitat, biodiversity and natural environment is therefore one of the essential issues that cannot be put at the back any more.